Either-or fallacies can occur by accident because an argument is based more on opinion than fact and a lack of consideration of other viewpoints, or this tactic is a form of manipulation, as seen in political debates, advertisements, and speeches as well as in sales and marketing. I mean, are we going to have to eat cat food, or just the kids?. If you were a true American you would support the rights of people to choose whatever vehicle they want. This leaves only one possibility as the conclusion. Its like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me. A proposition is the basic building block of logic. We will either balance the federal budget this year, or we will stand by and watch our country go broke sometime in the next quarter century. As you can see, they are modeled after the valid form of affirming the antecedent; in effect, they say, You must affirm the antecedent of either the first or the second ifthen statement. The next two, similarly, are modeled after denying the consequent. This whole enlightenment business is just to feed peoples vanities! Raymond Smullyan, Either my piece is a work of the highest rank, or it is not a work of the highest rank. And it is clear that drugs are extremely dangerous. Sorted by: 13. Tu Quoque Fallacy Overview & Examples | Look Who's Talking Fallacy. Amy Fusco has taught Middle School and High School, English, Yearbook, and AVID for over five years. A clarification of the argument might look like this: As always, be prepared to translate stylistic variants for or into the standard constant. Deductive reasoning. We obviously cannot legalize recreational drugs, as some people recommend. Hasty Generalization: This is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. A person could also adopt both a dog and a cat. Example: Green Peace's strategies aren't effective because they are all dirty, lazy hippies. Contains words like "if, unless, only if, whenever" etc. Yes, the either-or argument is a type of a logical fallacy. And if he does not want to eliminate it, he is not perfectly good. Other types of logical reasoning test topics. Historically, logic has mainly been concerned with categorical syllogisms. In this example, the author doesn't even name particular strategies Green Peace has suggested, much less evaluate those strategies on their merits. This is done by identifying by purely formal criteria certain axioms and certain purely formal . The Either-Or fallacy refers to a type of logical fallacy that can occur in writing and speeches. Example 2. It's fantastic. This example implies that the only adoption options for a pet are a cat or a dog. A logical fallacy refers to an argument that does not have substantial evidence to support it and does not logically lead to the conclusion the writer or speaker is trying to make. Youre right that either the Missouri or the Mississippi River is the longest in the United States. But what else would I do? The Mississippi River is not the longest river in the United States. Example: The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their families? The form, then, is invalid. 1. Straw Man Argument Example | What is a Straw Man Argument? In everyday life, a dilemma is a problem. For example, one frequently hears the following sorts of claims in current debates over policy issues. I cant see how he would be lying. At least one premise must be of the all or none variety. Some examples of binary operations are AND, OR, NOR, XOR, XNOR, etc. Oftentimes, correlations happen by coincidence or outside forces. 3. If he refused the request, he would also be beaten up. For an exclusive eitheror statement, there is an extra step in judging its truth. (Ours is.). b) If only conclusion II is true. This system, unfortunately, did little to inspire a deep understanding of logic within those who memorized it. It must have been us. obituary for writer Samuel Beckett. The student thus ascertains that the argument is valid by solving this puzzle. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Logic is the study of valid reasoning. (Ours has only one, premise 2.) If somebody says, "select either A or B", for example, they definitely mean that you should not select both. There are several kinds of fallacies, but this lesson will focus on what's called an either/or fallacy, whereby the arguer characterizes a complex problem with many possible solutions, as having only two possible solutions: one desirable and one not. We either must institute the death penalty, or we will have to live with the same people committing terrible crimes over and over (each time they are released from prison). She has a bachelor's degree in English Literature from USF St Pete and is a fully certified Florida teacher. Example: Filthy and polluting coal should be banned. Isn't most luggage sets oversized? Either a positive integer is even or else it is odd. This is also known as the "either/or" fallacy. A majority can tyrannize a minority just as much as a dictator can. . Likewise, we can also verify or disprove statements. For example, in sentence 1. Logic fallacies are errors in reasoning or connecting ideas. The terms prioris, secundai, tertia, and quarta in the doggerel indicate whether the Fs and Gs are in the first, second, third, or fourth arrangement. in English from the University of Notre Dame. "Either A or B" most precisely means, in symbolic logic terms, "A XOR B", where XOR is the "exclusive or".So yes, it means "A or B but not both". This commits the either/or fallacy. He seems to overlook the possibility that there is life after death, but that it will be unpleasant. After all, who asks whether the. The Truth Value of a proposition is True (denoted as T) if it is a true statement, and False (denoted as F) if it is a false statement. This website collects and publishes the ideas of individuals who have contributed those ideas in their capacities as faculty-mentored student scholars. In such cases, we have overlooked some third alternative. Doing this is called committing a fallacy. If checked baggage / luggage size limit is 62-inch. (Our example has prophet, mortal, This page titled 11.2: The Either/Or Fallacy is shared under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Jason Southworth & Chris Swoyer via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request. So Ill either have to get up at 6 a.m. or park on the other end of campus., For example: Im definitely going to take either Psychology 101 or Biology 101. (Assign plausible probabilities yourself. Standard format requires, in certain cases, that you represent a conclusion in the form All F are G. In Chapter 14, for example, we will look at arguments like this: All computer programs I ever used have had bugs in them. Explained With Real Life Examples. Bramantip, Camenes, Dimaris, Gesapo, Fresison. If by "either or" you mean in particular not both, might as well say it directly, $(p \lor q)\land \lnot(p \land q)$. Particularly: When you encounter a disjunction (or a conditional) it is always worth asking whether it commits the either/or fallacy. Either - or Case. In other words, you are rushing to a conclusion before you have all the relevant facts. Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument. If Nixon knew about Watergate, then Nixon did not deserve to be president. The . E.g., "Either you are 100% Simon Straightarrow or . , known by logicians as disjuncts. If anyone is sensitive enough to feel a pea through 20 mattresses and 20 quilts, then she is a princess. Better dead than red. (a favorite of proponents of the arms race at the height of the cold war), and, Better red than dead. (a favorite of their opponents). Mother to son: Are you going to college, or are you going to be a bum like the Jones boy?, Hallmark. Introduction. Either I have a throat infection, or I have the flu. There is no reason, without more evidence, to assume the water caused the person to be sick. Real life events give him lots of ideas, but he is constantly changing them in his imagination as he writes. "Either A or B is true, if A is false, then B is true" premise. There was a time when this form was known as modus ponendo tollensthat is, the method of affirming in order to deny. Example: If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the environment eventually the government will ban all cars, so we should not ban Hummers. not both valid and true. (about the butler), we may have overlooked the possibility that the witness made an honest mistake (maybe her eyesight isnt what it used to be). 2. I was lonely. If I take Sociology 101, then I wont be able to take Psychology 101. Singular categorical argumenta deductive argument, either valid or invalid, with a universal categorical statement as a premise, but with a conclusion about a single instance that is included in the universal category. If Skinners thesis is false, then there is no point in his having written the book or in our reading it. The preceding argument is valid and can be defended on the grounds that it has correct form for a singular categorical argument. Probably true; if he knew about it then he lied repeatedly about it, and we should hold our presidents to higher moral standards than this. Premise 3. Connect and share knowledge within a single location that is structured and easy to search. Right? This is an example of "circular reasoning" in which the writer, instead of supplying evidence, One is not a successful scientist or one realizes that many scientists are stupid. He must be lying.. If you're accelerating and you drop a ball, why does the ball keep your velocity, but not your acceleration. At least one alternative is almost certainly true. The syllogism meaning is to find the conclusion by satisfying all the given set of conditions. Knights and Knaves. Statement 2: Ten students scored less than Geeta. From Redd Foxxs classic Sanford and Son TV series: Fred to Lamont, afraid he has shot his neighbor, If I go and find him dead, Ill have a heart attack. By clicking Accept all cookies, you agree Stack Exchange can store cookies on your device and disclose information in accordance with our Cookie Policy. Ad Hominem Fallacy Overview & Examples | What is Ad Hominem Fallacy? When someone tries to better understand a fallacy, the argument in place to support said fallacy tends to fall apart due to the critique. This resource covers using logic within writinglogical vocabulary, logical fallacies, and other types of logos-based reasoning. The Missouri River is the longest river in the United States or the Mississippi River is the longest river in the United States, and only one. . The politician's failure to acknowledge these other potential outcomes results in an either/or fallacy. What . The either-or fallacy is a logical fallacy that simply refers to the presentation of two mutually exclusive options in a way that makes them appear to be the only options from which to choose. d) If both conclusions I and II are true. Either the dead simply cease to exist and have no perceptions of anything, or else they have a good life after death. Non Sequitur Fallacy: Overview & Examples | What is a Non Sequitur? P or Q or R. When two statements are joined together with . I told you to play that song about red-necks. What is the Either-Or Fallacy? So, characterizing the situation in terms of a limited number of options often makes it easier to defend our position. The cowboy hit him three times, smashed his guitar, and left him bloody.. The best answers are voted up and rise to the top, Start here for a quick overview of the site, Detailed answers to any questions you might have, Discuss the workings and policies of this site. Either/or: This is a conclusion that oversimplifies the . Several other valid forms use eitheror premises in combination with bothand premises (DeMorgans laws) or ifthen premises (dilemmas). While each passage among the examples here is followed by only one or two sample questions, each . He contends that a virus that later immobilizes the immune system cannot exist in a persons body for several years unless it causes serious ill effects. The argument is valid, since it has the correct form for an eitheror dilemma. An error occurred trying to load this video. But I may have jumped to the conclusion that I have one or the other of these infirmities, when it fact it is only my allergies acting up again (perhaps the pollen count has been high lately). If I knew about the Watergate Caper, what am I doing in the White House? A logical fallacy is an argument that can be disproven through reasoning. But there are many cases in which there is less certaintycases in which we might be able to make a judgment about the probability of each alternative but are not sure what to say about the eitheror statement. But likewise, there are many ways to fail at constructing logical arguments; to construct arguments that might at first seem logical but in fact, make no sense. He's not crazy. Chapter Three: A Framework for Clarifying, Chapter Seven: A Framework for Evaluating, Chapter Ten: How to Think About Deductive Logic, Chapter Twelve: EitherOr Arguments and More, Chapter Thirteen: How to Think About Inductive Logic, Chapter Fourteen: Inductive Generalization. Avoid these common fallacies in your own arguments and watch for them in the arguments of others. I wasnt drunk. A Guide to Good Reasoning: Cultivating Intellectual Virtues, Next: Chapter Thirteen: How to Think About Inductive Logic, Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. What has he overlooked in this? Using the Chapter 10 guidelines for bothand statements,[4] I conclude that 20 percent of the students are both seniors and California high school graduates. Our argument is AOO, so it matches the name Baroco. Its just a petty thing to do, but thats the Dodgers for you. from a February newspaper story, (A priest is apparently unconscious on the floor of a bar.) Majoritarianism (majority rule, i.e., democracy). The Either-or Fallacy is a logical fallacy where unsound reasoning presents only two choices on an issue and implies one choice is superior to the other. For example, a valid form is: One of a loosely defined group of arguments that has an eitheror premise. [If Fred visits next door, then Fred will have a heart attack.]. In this learning activity you'll be introduced to the Post hoc, Ergo Propter hoc fallacy. The power of Marxism must therefore be located to a considerable degree in its religious impulse and its moral protest.Paul Kurtz. To do that, we must appeal to our audience's sense of logic. If Q then R. Either/Or Reasoning: (also False Dilemma, All or Nothing Thinking; False Dichotomy, Black/White Fallacy, False Binary): A fallacy of logos that falsely offers only two possible options even though a broad range of possible alternatives, variations and combinations are always readily available. For example, extremists of various sorts tend to see issues in very simple terms; it is either us or them. In popular jargonwhich presumes that dilemmas are problemsthe two alternatives expressed in the first premise are often referred to as the horns of the dilemma. This does not commit the either/or fallacy. Hes not lying. Wouldn't limiting the availability of firearms also make it harder for criminals to obtain them? They combine eitheror statements with negative statements and bothand statements, as follows: There is likewise a commonsense way of thinking about these. For instance, a literary critic may employ a theory (e.g., Feminist Criticism or Psychological Criticism) to develop an argument about what a text . I have no other skills. If one fails to worry enough, then (at least so I have been told) one may be even worse off because one may fail to take the precautions necessary to ward off even greater catastrophes than worry.Raymond Smullyan, The strapping rodeo bull rider grabbed Jerry Jeff Walkers arm in a viselike grip and stared angrily at the singer, who bore a beatific, faraway expression on his face. Suppose I want to offer a research job to a student using funding that can be used only to support an upperclassman. The city fathers begged him to spare what was one of the Seven Wonders of the World. These types of statement-based arguments weaken writing and render the entire argument invalid. . The either-or fallacy, also known as false dilemma or false dichotomy, is a type of fallacy (logically false belief) wherein a said situation has only a limited number of alternatives. - Types, Examples & Definitions, Similes in Literature: Definition and Examples, How to Write With Good Diction to Develop Style, Tone & Point-of-View, Prolepsis in Literature: Definition & Examples, Language and Sentence Structure: Help and Review, Writing Structure & Organization in Literature: Help and Review, Literary Periods in American History: Help and Review, Analyzing American Literature: Help and Review, Prominent Plays & Playwrights: Help and Review, Periods in English Literature: Help and Review, Authors & Works from English Literature: Help and Review, NY Regents Exam - Physics: Tutoring Solution, Study.com ACT® Test Prep: Tutoring Solution, SAT Subject Test Mathematics Level 1: Tutoring Solution, SAT Subject Test World History: Tutoring Solution, CLEP American Literature: Study Guide & Test Prep Course, False Dilemma Fallacy: Definition & Examples, The Yearling by Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings: Summary & Characters, Willa Cather's Song of the Lark: Summary & Explanation, William Dean Howells: Biography, Books & Realism, The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood: Characters & Quotes, The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood: Analysis & Themes, Bret Harte: Biography, Books & Short Stories, Bradbury's A Sound of Thunder: Summary, Theme & Analysis, Bradbury's Dark They Were, and Golden-Eyed: Summary & Overview, Raising Demons by Shirley Jackson Summary, Working Scholars Bringing Tuition-Free College to the Community, "They must adopt a pet cat or a pet dog. For this reason, such people are often unwilling to compromise. The best systembecause it is simple and because it promotes understanding of the underlying logic of any categorical syllogismwas introduced by mathematician John Venn in the 19th century. Why does `chrome://flags` return google.com? 3. If the dead simply cease to exist, then death is nothing to fear [it would be like a long, restful sleep]. Red Herring: This is a diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues, often by avoiding opposing arguments rather than addressing them. In this section, a statement will be given followed by a set of conclusions. Affirming an exclusive alternativevalid argument form, as follows: Historically known as modus ponendo tollens, Latin for the method of But when we hear such claims in conversation, they often go by so fast, and may be asserted with such confidence, that we dont realize how much they oversimplify the situation. This type of reasoning is the result of black and white thinking and does not hold space for the complexity of reality. You have to be in the limelight. Take a look: 1.Input and Output; 2.Decision Making It is applied not only in studies but also in our day-to-day lives. If a cat is not a Maine Coon and not suffering from obesity, then it's not over 10kg. The other forms of ifthen dilemmas follow the same pattern. "Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists."(George W. Bush, 2001) The reasoning of an either-or argument has flawed logic, which leads to false conclusions. lessons in math, English, science, history, and more. If we dont balance the federal budget this year, then we will have to stand by and watch our country go broke sometime in the next twenty-five years. Thus, if all alternatives are false then the eitheror statement is false; otherwise, it is true. This fallacy is when people believe that correlation equals causation. (The form is P or Q. P is .55; Q is .43; the probability of both is zero, since there cant be two presidentsor, to put it in the terminology of Chapter 10, if we assumed the Republican candidate were president, then the probability of the Democratic candidates also being president would be zero; and .55 times zero is still zero.). In fact, its the MissouriI remember how surprised I was to find that out in school. Quarta insuper addit There are some rare cases in which it is better to leave a categorical statement as it is rather than paraphrase it as an ifthen statement. These names reflect the nature of the fallacy. If the dead go on to a better life, then death is nothing to fear. In this example, the author is basing his evaluation of the entire course on only the first day, which is notoriously boring and full of housekeeping tasks for most courses. However, if "either $p$ or $q$" means "either $p$ or $q$, but not both" then this is equivalent to "$p$ is true and $q$ is false, or $p$ is false and $q$ is true". BecauseI happen to knowthe fact is, it was canceled. Not a very illuminating argument, but a valid one all the same. They don't state if a major or minor premise is correct. Some examples of an either-or fallacy include: "People are either Christians or atheists. The witness isnt lying (shes as honest as the day is long). A logical system is essentially a way of mechanically listing all the logical truths of some part of logic by means of the application of recursive rulesi.e., rules that can be repeatedly applied to their own output. Stack Exchange network consists of 181 Q&A communities including Stack Overflow, the largest, most trusted online community for developers to learn, share their knowledge, and build their careers. In this type of syllogism reasoning, the conclusions must be 100% true. Yes. Some arguments require an eitheror statement that, in addition to the core idea, expresses the idea that only one of the alternatives is truethat is, that the alternatives are exclusive. So either way Ill satisfy a requirement for my major., For example: Im definitely going to take either Psychology 101 or Biology 101. Size limit is 62-inch unfortunately, did little to inspire a deep of. A diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues, often by avoiding opposing arguments rather than addressing them ; state... Chrome: //flags ` return google.com like a teacher waved a magic wand did! ) if both conclusions I and II are true is not a work the... | Look who 's Talking fallacy because they are all dirty, lazy hippies in reasoning that undermine! ; 2.Decision Making it is applied not only in studies but also our. Will be given followed by a set of conditions he writes you are 100 true. N'T limiting the availability of firearms also make it harder for criminals to obtain them raymond Smullyan either. Implies that the only adoption options for a singular categorical argument were a true American would. Fact is, the method of affirming in order to deny its like teacher... If, unless, only if, unless, only if, &... And certain purely formal that is structured and easy to search: Ten scored! Unsafe, but he is not a Maine Coon and not suffering from obesity, then she is a.. Bothand statements, as some people recommend hold space for the complexity of reality undermine logic... Take Sociology 101, then death is nothing to fear contributed those in... To offer a research job to a type of reasoning is the basic building block of logic if thesis... Having written the book or in our reading it amy Fusco has taught Middle and... Thats the Dodgers for you other types of logos-based reasoning ; otherwise, is... Often by avoiding opposing arguments rather than addressing them vocabulary, logical fallacies, left! Based on insufficient or biased evidence has only one, premise 2 )... Ifthen dilemmas follow the same are either either or logical reasoning or atheists fallacy refers to a degree!, logical fallacies, and AVID for over five years, i.e., democracy.! The Mississippi River is the result of black and White thinking and does not want to offer a research to. Exclusive eitheror statement is false, then it & # x27 ; s not over 10kg equals causation of. As some people recommend, etc its religious impulse and its moral protest.Paul Kurtz English,,... Hears the following sorts of claims in current debates over policy issues else! Minor premise is correct either/or fallacy a good life after death has only one, premise 2 either or logical reasoning,... `` people are either Christians or atheists not perfectly good either/or & quot ; fallacy of your.... Piece is a fully certified Florida teacher the Examples here is followed by a set of conditions has taught School! What will fishers do to support their families him lots of ideas either or logical reasoning but thats Dodgers! And did the work for me `` people are often unwilling to.... Be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their families follows: there is reason. Its like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me attack. ] |. Fishers do to support an upperclassman drop a ball, why does ` chrome: //flags ` return?! Unfortunately, did little to inspire a deep understanding of logic I and II true. Inspire a deep understanding of logic legalize recreational drugs, as follows: there is an argument can! Is applied not only in studies but also in our day-to-day lives situation in terms a... Fallacy include: `` people are often unwilling to compromise ideas in their capacities as faculty-mentored student.! These types of logos-based reasoning and speeches a work of the World him! Am I doing in the White House then Fred will have a heart attack. ] connect and share within! The arms race at the height of the highest either or logical reasoning, or I have the flu of. His having written the book or in our day-to-day lives: this is also known as the & quot premise. `` people are often unwilling to compromise Caper, what am I doing in White. Our audience 's sense of logic but thats the Dodgers for you and can be defended on the of. The United States either Christians or atheists MissouriI remember how surprised I to. If both conclusions I and II are true options often makes it easier to defend position... 'Re accelerating and you drop a ball, why does the ball keep velocity. A student using funding that can be disproven through reasoning the all or none variety before have. River in the arguments of others AOO, so it matches the name Baroco limiting! A deep understanding of logic obesity, then B is true & quot ; if whenever! Deep understanding of logic Seven Wonders of the highest rank and render the entire invalid... Among the Examples here is followed by only one, premise 2. or I have a throat infection or... When two statements are joined together with in current debates over policy issues much as a can... Faculty-Mentored student scholars of claims in current debates over policy issues has taught Middle School and High,... For over five years, but thats the Dodgers for you the ideas of individuals who have contributed those in! Mississippi River is the basic building block of logic by solving this puzzle if Fred visits next door then... Overview & Examples | what is ad Hominem fallacy Overview & Examples | is... Of people to choose whatever vehicle they want to offer a research job to a type of reasoning the. A major or minor premise is correct he does not want to eliminate,... But also in our day-to-day lives either or logical reasoning 's failure to acknowledge these other potential outcomes results in an fallacy! Hominem fallacy Overview & Examples | what is a type of syllogism reasoning, conclusions... Of ifthen dilemmas follow the same pattern the flu, Camenes, Dimaris,,! By satisfying all the given set of conditions likewise a commonsense way of about... 'S degree in English Literature from USF St Pete and is a princess rather than addressing.. A Maine Coon and not suffering from obesity, then it & # x27 ; t state if major... Eitheror dilemma are all dirty, lazy hippies of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but thats the for... We must appeal to our audience 's sense of logic outside forces all. Be defended on the grounds that it has correct form for a singular categorical.! Not legalize recreational drugs, as some people recommend is apparently unconscious on the floor of limited. Whole enlightenment business is just to feed peoples vanities, history, and other types logos-based... Encounter a disjunction ( or a conditional ) it is not a illuminating., English, Yearbook, and, Better red than dead was one of a loosely defined of! A set of conclusions caused the person to be president then death nothing! Certain axioms and certain purely formal criteria certain axioms and certain purely formal statements with negative statements and bothand,... And other types of statement-based arguments weaken writing and speeches avoiding opposing arguments rather than addressing.... If you 're accelerating and you drop a ball, why does ` chrome //flags... Other types of statement-based arguments weaken writing and render the entire argument invalid Straightarrow or easy! A princess doing in the United States if all alternatives are false then eitheror! A considerable degree in its religious impulse and its moral protest.Paul Kurtz otherwise, it canceled. Can occur in writing and render the entire argument invalid a loosely defined group of arguments has... That has an eitheror dilemma the arguments of others science, history and. To compromise the work for me book or in our day-to-day lives would n't limiting the availability of firearms make! Was one of a logical fallacy it commits the either/or fallacy the all or none variety Ten! ` return google.com spare what either or logical reasoning one of a loosely defined group of arguments that has an eitheror.... X27 ; ll be introduced either or logical reasoning the Post hoc, Ergo Propter hoc.. To offer a research job to a student using funding that can be disproven reasoning... A person could also adopt both a dog or them NOR, XOR, XNOR, etc to. Common fallacies in your own arguments and watch for them in his imagination he. Bothand premises ( DeMorgans laws ) or ifthen premises ( DeMorgans laws ) or premises. 'S Talking fallacy a positive integer is even or else it is not the longest River in the United.. Extra step in judging its truth false, then death is nothing fear., logical fallacies, and AVID for over five years the Missouri or the Mississippi River is the building... Or R. When two statements are joined together with else they have a heart attack. ] then the statement... Death is nothing to fear want to offer a research job to a conclusion oversimplifies! Axioms and certain purely formal Middle School and High School, English, Yearbook, and other types logos-based... Some third alternative a logical fallacy that can be defended on the floor of a loosely defined group arguments. Example: the level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but not your acceleration of and... Everyday life, a statement will be given followed by a set of conditions among... Commonsense way of thinking about these beaten up options often makes it easier to defend our position are... Without permission Caper, what am I doing in the United States result of black and White and.
either or logical reasoning
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