Ozone is produced in the stratosphere by natural photochemical reactions. balance of ozone in the stratosphere. In the early 1970s, Johnston was among the first to point to a potential threat to the ozone layer by increasing nitrogen source gases to be emitted by a projected US fleet of supersonic aircrafts [19]. Press, Washington, p339, Bais AF et al (2011) Atmos Chem Phys 11(15):75337545, IPCC (2001) Climate change 2001: the scientific basis, contribution of working group 1 to the third assessment report, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, Holton JR, Haynes PH, McIntyre ME, Douglass AR, Rood RB, Pfister L (1995) Rev Geophys 33:403439, Stohl A, Bonasoni P, Cristofanelli P, Collins W et al (2003) J Geophys Res 108:8516. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002490, Meul S, Langematz U, Krger P, Oberlnder-Hayn S, Jckel P (2018) Atmos Chem Phys 18:77217738. Models project that rising greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations will cool the middle and upper stratosphere and thereby reduce chemical gas-phase ozone depletion, leading to a future ozone increase in the upper stratosphere. Keywords: ozone layer, middle atmosphere, atmospheric chemistry, stratosphere, chemistry-climate modelling, Citation: Chiodo G, Liu J, Revell L, Sukhodolov T and Zhang J (2021) Editorial: The Evolution of the Stratospheric Ozone. Examples of this include the connection between the recovery of the stratospheric ozone layer and climate change, connections between increases in stratospheric water vapor and surface temperature changes, and changes in stratospheric circulation that influence, and are influenced by, climate change. However, the return dates of TCO to its 1980 baseline values differ regionally (Table1), as effects other than ODSs have regionally varying impacts on ozone recovery (see The role of climate change). Acad. The annual abundances of equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine (EESC), shown for the Antarctic stratosphere, are based on surface abundances (measured or derived from projected emissions and lifetimes) of the chlorine- and bromine-containing substances (b). The altitude of the ozone maximum at about 22km derived from the Umkehr method [5] was supported by first in- situ spectroscopic measurements from balloons in Germany by Erich and Victor H. Regener in 1934 and the Explorer II mission in the USA 1year later. Minimum values of total ozone inside the ozone hole are close to 100 Dobson units (DU) compared with normal Antarctic springtime values of about 350 DU. layer. Institut fr Meteorologie, Freie Universitt Berlin, Carl-Heinrich-Becker-Weg 6-10, 12165, Berlin, Germany, You can also search for this author in The spatial and temporal distribution of stratospheric ozone is determined by chemical and dynamical processes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 478, Butchart N (2014) Rev Geophys 52:157184. The ozone layer effectively blocks almost all solar radiation of wavelengths less than 290 nm from reaching Earths surface, including certain types of ultraviolet (UV) and other forms of radiation that could injure or kill most living things. known as atomic oxygen. Ozone depletion, the global decrease in stratospheric ozone observed since the 1970s, is most pronounced in polar regions, and it is well correlated with the increase of chlorine and bromine in the stratosphere. These gases are the products of long-lived natural and anthropogenic source gases emitted at Earths surface or by the oceans. Climate models, considering the chemical effects of ODSs on ozone, were able to reproduce the observed ozone decline in the upper stratosphere, thus confirming the causal relationship between ODSs and the observed ozone decline (e.g., [21, 22], Fig. Starting in the early 1970's, however, scientists found evidence From: The New Public Health (Third Edition), 2014 Although the CFC molecules are heavier than air, the air Nitric oxide (NO), another radical causing the destruction of large amounts of ozone, forms in the stratosphere by photolytic reaction of nitrous oxide (N2O) with O(1D) [9] and, mainly at higher altitudes in the mesosphere, from the ionization of molecular nitrogen (N2) by solar or galactic energetic particles. . CAS In the stratosphere the temperature of the atmosphere rises with increasing height, a phenomenon created by the absorption of solar radiation by the ozone layer. Longer-wavelength (>175nm) ultraviolet (UV) radiation can penetrate the stratosphere, where it affects ozone formation. With ODS concentrations declining in the coming decades, ozone will be affected more strongly by climate change. Ozone Depletion In addition to chemical reactions that produce and destroy ozone naturally in the presence of oxygen (see The Chapman Cycle), ozone is destroyed in catalytic chemical processes that involve reactive gases containing hydrogen and nitrogen, as well as chlorine and bromine compounds (see Catalytic ozone destruction). Their study, for the first time, found that Arctic stratospheric ozone (ASO) can be an effective and robust predictor for April precipitation in the northwestern United States with a 1-month lead. GC was supported by the SNSF Ambizione grant PZ00P2_180043. With increasing production and consumption of ODSs since the 1970s stratospheric ozone began to decline globally. This continued ozone depletion will have consequences for life in the tropics. Results from more than two decades of laboratory work, field research, and computer modeling help scientists clarify the effects of people's actions and policies on Earth's protective stratospheric ozone layer. Enhanced GHGs are also projected to strengthen the stratospheric BDC, leading to a growing poleward and downward transport of ozone (e.g., [34]). In the 1980s, it was discovered that the ozone layer was being damaged by anthropogenic halocarbons, which led to limitations on the production of halocarbon-containing ozone depleting substances via the Montreal Protocol and its Amendments. is a concentration of ozone molecules in the. The broad range of projected return dates of TCO for a specific region, indicated by the values in brackets in Table1, results from the complexity and diversity of the applied chemistry-climate models. This remainder of this page will focus on the former. next: Ozone Depletion as ozone is being created at the same rate that it is being destroyed, Ozone, the three-atomic form of oxygen (chemical formula: O3), is a minor gas naturally present in Earths atmosphere. The lower portion of the stratosphere is nearly isothermal (a layer of constant temperature), whereas temperatures in its upper levels increase with altitude. Over the course of several decades, however, human activities substantially altered the ozone layer. This ozone loss is strongest for the extreme RCP 8.5 scenario. CFCs and other ozone-destroying chemicals into the stratosphere, the Global total ozone changes. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD012397, Chubachi S (1984) Mem Natl Inst Polar Res 34(special issue):1319, Farman JC, Gardiner BG, Shanklin JD (1985) Nature 315:207, Crutzen PJ, Arnold F (1986) Nature 324:651, Toon OB, Hamill P, Turco RP, Pinto J (1986) Geophys Res Lett 13:1284, McElroy MB, Salawitch RJ, Wofsy SC, Logan JA (1986) Nature 321:759, Molina LT, Molina MJ (1987) J Phys Chem 91:433, Anderson JG, Brune WH, Proffitt MH (1989) J Geophys Res 94:11,479, World Meteorological Organization (WMO) (2018) Executive summary: scientific assessment of ozone depletion: 2018, World Meteorological Organization, global ozone research and monitoring projectreport no. This relocation is further supported by meridional mixing in the lower stratosphere. The interest in understanding the chemistry and budget of sulfur in the stratosphere is increasing. Likewise, as long Ozone, the three-atomic form of oxygen (chemical formula: O 3 ), is a minor gas naturally present in Earth's atmosphere. 8). Compliance with international treaties that phased out the production and delivery of many ozone-depleting chemicals, combined with upper stratospheric cooling due to increased carbon dioxide, is thought to have contributed to the shrinking of the ozone holes over the poles and to slightly higher stratospheric ozone levels overall. However, when a chlorine monoxide molecule encounters a free atom They accumulate and are globally distributed in the troposphere before they are transported into the stratosphere, where they are converted to reactive halogen gases. Due to a combination of cold meteorological conditions and specific chemical reactions, the ozone hole developed over Antarctica each springtime since the early 1980s. The production of ozone in the stratosphere results primarily from the breaking of the chemical bonds within oxygen molecules (O 2) by high-energy solar photons.This process, called photodissociation, results in the release of single oxygen atoms, which later join with intact oxygen molecules to form ozone.Rising atmospheric oxygen concentrations some two billion years ago allowed ozone to . He had noticed an intense odour during experiments with the electrolysis of water and named the unknown smelling substance ozone after the Ancient Greek word (ozein: to smell). oxygen atom to form chlorine monoxide and leaving an ordinary oxygen The source gases of these halogen radicals are emitted at Earths surface by human activities or natural processes. Stratospheric ozone is formed in chemical reactions that require oxygen and sunlight [6]. oxygen atom and releasing the chlorine atom back into the stratosphere National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR), Earth System Research Laboratories (ESRL). Atmospheric ozone is formed by combination of atomic and molecular oxygen. The relative heights of atmospheric Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. (From https://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov/). Using the satellite, historical reanalysis, and modelling data, they showed that this time series correlates very well with the global and northern hemispheric means and can serve as a useful proxy for statistical reconstructions of global ozone behavior and monitoring long-term trends, as well as model evaluation. CSL has had long-standing collaborations with NASA to instrument high-flying aircraft to study stratospheric aerosol, ozone, and water vapor. above also affect the concentration of ozone in the stratosphere. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Thick solid lines indicate the smoothed time series. When high-energy ultraviolet rays strike ordinary oxygen molecules (O 2 ), they split the molecule into two single oxygen atoms, known as atomic oxygen. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-7721-2018. The evolution of the stratospheric ozone layer remains a central problem to contemporary science because of its importance for the sustainable development of human society. Vertical ozone profile. Given the projected future recovery of the stratospheric ozone layer, the ozone mass flux from the stratosphere into the troposphere is expected to increase. Thus, in terms of ozone mass, the ozone layer varies between about 1015km altitude at high latitudes and 2025km in the tropics (Fig. converted into heat. In addition, ozone is destroyed in catalytic chemical cycles involving reactive, so-called ozone depleting substances (ODSs). The calculations are based on HALOE (V19) satellite measurements and are for overhead sun (23S, January) and for total inorganic chlorine (Cly) in the stratosphere corresponding to 1994 conditions. The Montreal Protocol and its subsequent Amendments and adjustments have successfully limited the abundance of ODSs in the atmosphere. In the upper stratosphereat pressures lower than 10hPaozone will increase as a combined effect of declining ODS and rising GHG concentrations. This increase is dominated by effects of rising GHGs (46%), with stratospheric ozone recovery due to declining ODSs contributing only 7%. Depletion is so extensive that so-called ozone holes (regions of severely reduced ozone coverage) form over the poles during the onset of their respective spring seasons. Seasonal and solar effects have been removed from the observational dataset. Updates? The ozone- oxygen cycle is the process by which ozone is continually regenerated in Earth 's stratosphere, converting ultraviolet radiation (UV) into heat. The source gas N2O is produced by bacterial processes in natural and cultivated soils. 2. currents and mixing processes of the atmosphere carry them into the Figure11 (left) summarizes the annual mean global changes in TCO which occurred in the period of rising ODSs (19601990, top row) and which are projected in CCM simulations by the end of the twenty-first century (19602090) for the moderate, medium and extreme RCP GHG scenarios [36]. The model projections into the future assume compliance with the Montreal Protocol and an increase in GHGs following the RCP6.0 scenario. analyzed the worlds longest TCO measurement series in Arosa/Davos (Switzerland) in terms of its representativeness for different spatial and temporal scales. The relative contribution of rising GHG abundances to this global ozone increase will be larger in the NH (51%) than in the SH (40%), while the contribution of declining ODS concentrations will be stronger in the SH (9%) than in the NH (4%). As at the same time atomic oxygen concentrations are reduced, Cycle 1 becomes less efficient and polar ozone loss is dominated by two other catalytic destruction cycles in which ClO reacts either with itself (ClO dimer cycle, Cycle 2) or with BrO (Cycle 3) to produce ozone destroying Cl and Br radicals. It is both a natural and a man-made product that occurs in the Earth's upper atmosphere (the stratosphere) and lower atmosphere (the troposphere). Red line: Trend attributed to ODS changes alone from CCM simulations with fixed 1960 GHG concentrations (seven models). Timeline of: a CFC-11-equivalent emissions, b EESC, c global total ozone, and d October Antarctic total ozone. As long as water is poured Using optical instruments to measure the solar spectral irradiance, Sir Walter Hartley concluded in 1880 that the strong absorption of solar UV radiation between 200 and 320nm, which had been discovered by Marie Alfred Cornu 2years before, is produced by ozone and that, therefore, larger amounts of ozone exist permanently in the upper atmosphere [2]. Pinatubo eruption. However, due to the long residence time of the ODSs in the stratosphere, large effects of natural variability and the confounding impacts of climate change it is not yet possible to detect a statistically significant increase of global total column ozone [30]. Chang et al. also animated. Natl. 4 (see also [17]). This article provides the background of ozone chemistry and dynamics and reviews anthropogenic ozone depletion in the past as well as recent model projections of future ozone recovery and its interaction with climate change. This process, called photodissociation, results in the release of single oxygen atoms, which later join with intact oxygen molecules to form ozone. The largest such holewhich has spanned more than 20.7 million square km (8 million square miles) on a consistent basis since 1992appears annually over Antarctica between September and November. with other chemicals in the lower atmosphere. A further milestone in stratospheric ozone research was the construction of a series of UV-spectrophotometers by Sir Gordon Miller Bourne Dobson in the 1920s [4]. 44, Geneva, Switzerland, IPCC/TEAP, Metz B, Kuijpers L, Solomon S, Andersen SO, Davidson O, Pons J, de Jager D, Kestin T, Manning M, Meyer L (eds) (2005) Safeguarding the ozone layer and the global climate system: issues related to hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons. At about the same time, James Chappuis discovered the ozone absorption in the visible part of the solar spectrum (500700nm), followed by Sir William Huggins 10years later who measured the ozone absorption lines between 310 and 360nm. In each reaction, an ozone molecule is lost and other chemical compounds are produced. However, to maintain high ClO levels and to complete the cycles, sunlight is required. oxygen molecule to form a molecule of ozone. The largest significant increase of 15% is expected for the medium RCP6.0 GHG scenario, with South America, South Africa, and Australia being affected most. 200020-182239) and was partly performed in the SPbSU Ozone Layer and Upper Atmosphere Research laboratory supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation under Grant 075-15-2021-583. Numerous studies have confirmed the substantial positive role of the Montreal Protocol for climate and ozone layer and the rebound of the total column ozone (TCO) is now clear and can be seen even at individual locations, such as the Arosa station in Switzerland (Figure 1). The oxygen atom then combines either with another oxygen molecule to form a new ozone molecule (Eq. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40828-019-0082-7, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40828-019-0082-7. D. Without interference, there is a balance of ozone . shielded from ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer. From its tropical production region ozone is then transported to higher latitudes by the meridional circulation. However, the severe ozone decline over Antarctica, measured since the early 1980s by ground-based measurements at the Antarctic research stations Syowa [23] and Halley Bay [24] came completely unexpected. While TCO decreased during the ODS era, particularly in northern mid-latitudes, the southern hemisphere and over Antarctica, it will generally recover by the end of the twenty-first century in the midhigh latitudes of both hemispheres. In the stratosphere, ozone is created primarily by ultraviolet The bromine abundances are weighted by a factor of 60 to account for the greater efficiency of bromine in ozone destruction reactions in the atmosphere. They found that increased gravity waves breaking intensified the STE causing the ozone-rich air intrusion from the stratosphere to the upper troposphere. Updated and extended in altitude range from [14] and Chap. Future model projections were analyzed in Keeble et al., who focused on simulations under different Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) using the UKESM1 Earth system model. Given the larger ozone abundance in the lower stratosphere, the net effect will be a future decline of stratospheric tropical ozone column which is strongest for the extreme RCP 8.5 GHG scenario. molecules of ozone. In the midlatitudes the peak concentrations of ozone occur at altitudes from 20 to 25 km (about 12 to 16 miles). can be carried downward from the stratosphere into the troposphere, Because of this U.S. policy makers, the U.S. chemical industry, EPA, and other national and international agencies rely on these scientific assessments as a basis for development of scientifically sound, well-informed policies. Using ozone satellite data, they confirmed that there is an overall positive trend in TCO in these latitudes since 2005, and that the ozone layer over the Tibetan Plateau is healing faster than its zonal average since 2009, thus making this region less vulnerable to the UV radiation. University of Hawaii at Manoa, United States, Editorial on the Research Topic The Evolution of the Stratospheric Ozone. Over the Earth's lifetime, natural processes have regulated the These ODSs include chlorine, bromine, hydrogen and nitrogen compounds from source gases emitted at Earths surface by industry and transported into the stratosphere. In the stratosphere, ozone is created primarily by ultraviolet radiation. This continent-wide ozone depletion, later named Antarctic ozone hole, started to develop in the mid-1970s, and is, since then, a regular annual phenomenon in late winter and early spring at southern polar latitudes (Fig. A few years later, Molina and Rowland suggested that the increasing consumption of industrially manufactured chlorofluorocarbons, in particular CFC-11 (CCl3F) and CFC-12 (CCl2F2), provides the major source of stratospheric chlorine, and therefore, might lead to a reduction of the ozone layer [20]. Ozone reacts continually with sunlight and a wide variety of natural and human-produced chemicals in the stratosphere. However, due to the long residence time of the ODSs in the stratosphere, large effects of natural variability and the confounding impacts of climate change (see The role of climate change) it is not yet possible to detect a statistically significant increase of global total column ozone [30]. Human CSL stratospheric research has four focal points: (1) developing and using instrumentation to measure key species such as ozone, black carbon, aerosol composition, water vapor, and sulfur dioxide; (2) understanding the chemistry, composition, and transport within the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere; (3) developing and using atmospheric models to understand the radiative and dynamical coupling of the stratosphere and troposphere; and (4) studying the relationship between climate change and changes in the stratosphere. (1MB). sources). 4 Citations 43 Altmetric Metrics Abstract The Earth has now warmed ~1.0 C since the period 1850-1900, due in large part to the anthropogenic addition of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. These cutting-edge observational activities are intimately linked to advanced numerical modeling approaches used by CSL scientists. 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how is the production of stratospheric ozone balanced
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